Real History of "Taj Mahal"

"The Moghul Emperor Shah Jahan in the memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal built the Taj Mahal. It was built in 22 years (1631 to 1653) by 20,000 artisans
brought to India from all over the world! . Many people believe Ustad Isa of
Iran designed it." This is what your guide probably told you if you ever visited the Taj Mahal. This is the same story I read in my history book as a student.

NOW READ THIS.......

No one has ever challenged it except Prof. P. N. Oak, who believ es the whole
world has been duped. In his book Taj Mahal: The True Story, Oak says the
Taj Mahal is not Queen Mumtaz's to! mb but an ancient Hindu temple palace of
Lord Shiva (then known as Tejo Mahalaya) . In the course of his research Oak discovered that the Shiva temple palace was usurped by Shah Jahan from
then Maharaja of Jaipur, Jai Singh. In his own court chronicle, Badshahnama,
Shah Jahan admits that an exceptionally be autiful grand mansion in Agra was
taken from Jai SIngh for Mumtaz's burial . The ex-Maharaja of Jaipur still retains in his secret collection two orders from Shah Jahan for surrendering
the Taj building. Using captured temples and mansions, as a burial place ! for
dead courtiers and royalty was a common practice among Muslim rulers.

For example, Humayun,Akbar, Etmud-ud-Daula and Safdarjung are all buried in
such mansions. Oak's inquiries began with the name of T! aj Mahal. He says the term "Mahal" has never been used for a building in any Muslim countries from Afghanisthan to Algeria. "The unusual explanation that the term Taj Mahal derives from Mumtaz Mahal was illogical in atleast two respects.

Firstly, her name was never Mumtaz Mahal but Mumtaz-ul-Zamani," he writes.
Secondly, one cannot omit the first three letters 'Mum' from a woman's name
to derive the remainder as the name for the building."Taj Mahal, he claims,
is a corrupt version of Tejo Mahalaya, or Lord Shiva's Palace . Oak also says the love story of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan is a fairy tale created by
court sycophants, blundering historians and sloppy archaeologists . Not a
single royal chronicle of Shah Jahan's time corroborates the love story.

Furthermore, Oak cites several documents suggesting the Taj Mahal predates
Shah Jahan's era, and was ! a temple dedicated to Shiva, worshipped by Rajputs
of Agra city. For example, Prof. Marvin Miller of New York took a few
samples from the riverside doorway of the Taj . Carbon dating tests revealed that the door was 300 years older than Shah Jahan . European traveler Johan
Albert Mandelslo,who visited Agra in 1638 (only seven years after Mumtaz's
death), describes the life of the city in his memoirs. But he makes no
reference to the Taj Mahal being built. The writings of Peter Mundy, an English visitor to Agra within a year of Mumtaz's death, also suggest the
Taj was a noteworthy building well before Shah Jahan's ti me.

Prof. Oak points out a number of design and architectural inconsistencies
that support the belief of the Taj Mahal being a typical ! Hindu temple rather
than a mausoleum .Many rooms in the Taj ! Mahal have remained sealed since Shah Jahan's time and are still inaccessible to the public. Oak asserts they contain a headless statue of Lord Shiva and other objects commonly used for worship rituals in Hindu temples .

Fearing political backlash, Indira Gandhi's government tried to have Prof. Oak's book withdrawn from the bookstores, and threatened the Indian publisher of the first edition dire consequences . There is only one way to discredit or validate Oak's research.

The current government should open the sealed rooms of the Taj Mahal under
U.N. supervision, and let international experts investigate.

Do circulate this to all you know and let them know about this reality.....

The following link contains photographic proof!

http://www.stephen-knapp.com/was_the_taj_mahal_a_vedic_temple.htm

Know some unknown history of words ..............

MOPED is the short term for 'Motorized Pedaling'.

POP MUSIC is 'Popular Music' shortened.

BUS is the short term for 'Omnibus' that means everybody.

FORTNIGHT comes from 'Fourteen Nights' (Two Weeks).

DRAWING ROOM was actually a 'withdrawing room' where people withdrew after Dinner. Later the prefix 'with' was dropped.

NEWS refers to information from Four directions N, E, W and S.

AG-MARK, which some products bear, stems from 'Agricultural Marketing'.

JOURNAL is a diary that tells about 'Journey for a day' during each Day's business.

QUEUE comes from 'Queen's Quest'. Long back a long row of people as

waiting to see the Queen. Someone made the comment Queen's Quest.

TIPS come from 'To Insure Prompt Service'. In olden days to get Prompt service from servants in an inn, travelers used to drop coins in a Box

on which was written 'To Insure Prompt Service'. This gave rise to the custom of Tips.

JEEP is a vehicle with unique Gear system. It was invented during World War II (1939-1945). It was named 'General Purpose Vehicle

(GP)'.GP was changed into JEEP later.

History Links

know ppl of your birthdate
http://www.museumofconceptualart.com/accomplished/

Origin and history of Marathi

Marathi can be traced back far beyond the 10^th century. It descends from Sanskrit through Pali, Maharashtri and Maharashtra - Apabhramsa. A gradual process of change and modification in the spoken language has led to the rise of the present Marathi. The origin and growth of Marathi literature is indebted to two important events. The first was the rise of the Jadhava dynasty whose capital was Devgiri. The Jadhava’s adopted Marathi as the court language and patronized Marathi learned men. The second event was the coming of two religious sects known as Mahanubhav Panth and Warkari Panth which adopted Marathi as the medium for preaching their doctrines of devotion. Writers of the Mahanubhav sect contributed to Marathi prose while the saint-poets of Warkari sect composed Marathi poetry. However, the latter group is regarded as the pioneers and founders of Marathi literature.

Marathi literature first made its appearance in the 10^th century AD and can be grouped into two ages: Ancient or Old Marathi literature (1000-1800) and Modern Marathi Literature (1800 onwards). The former consisted mainly of poetry composed in metres and restricted to the poet’s choice of words and rhythms. It was particularly devotional, narrative and pessimistic. for old Marathi poets hadn’t been able to develop satire, parody, irony and humor into their poetry.

Old Marathi Literature covers about eight centuries. Its pioneers and founders were Mukundaraj (Vivekasindhu) and Dnyaneshwar (Dnyaneshwari) whose younger contemporary Namdeo (1270-1350) wrote devotional verses in a simple language for the people. Two centuries later came the great saint and greater poet Eknath whose Ekanathi Bhagavata is a literary masterpiece of Marathi literature. Eknath had a simple and attractive style of composing poetry and was the founder of secular poetry in Marathi. Mukteshwar (1574-1645) later developed this style, and his version of the Mahabharata is the best example of a great narrative poem in Marathi. In the history of Marathi literature, Tukaram (1608-1651) has been given a unique stature. A real genius, Tukaram’s poetry came forth from his wonderful inspirations. He was a radical reformer and has often been called Sant (saint) Tukaram. Terseness, clarity, vigor and earnestness were found in every line of his poetry.

Tukaram’s associate Ramdas’ (1608-1681) Dasabodha is an inspiring and impressive piece in Marathi. 18^th century poetry is well represented by Vaman Pandit (Yathartha Dipika), Raghunath Pandit (Nala Damayanti Swayamvara) and Shridhar Pandit (Pandavpratap, Harivijay and Ramvijay). However, the most versatile and voluminous writer among the poets was Moropanta (1729-1794) whose Mahabharata was the first epic poem in Marathi. The historical section of the old Marathi literature was unique as it contained both prose and poetry. The prose section contained the Bakhars that were written after the foundation of the Maratha kingdom by Shivaji. The poetry section contained the Padavas and the Katavas composed by the Shahirs. The period from 1794 to 1818 is regarded as the closing period of the Old Marathi literature and the beginning of the Modern Marathi literature.

The modern period has been divided into four ages. The first period starts from 1800 to 1885, the second from 1885 to 1920, the third from 1921 to 1945, and finally the last period continues till now. In this period, almost all forms of literature in prose and poetry were developed and even scientific literature was produced. Under the British rule, attempts were made to enrich both the language and literature. The Raja of Tanjore got the first English Book translated to Marathi in 1817. Several more such attempts were made and translation work was encouraged a lot. Chhatre, Bal Shastri Jambhekar, Lokahitavadi and Jotiba Phule wrote on various topics in Marathi. The first Marathi newspaper was started in 1835, and Baba Padamji’s Yamuna Paryatan was the first Marathi novel written on social reform in 1857.

However, this period was a lean one for original poetry and only translations of Sanskrit poems were produced. Establishment of the University of Bombay in 1858 and the starting of the newspaper Kesari in 1880-81 gave a boost to the development of Modern Marathi Literature. Keshavasuta (1866-1905), the first Marathi revolutionary poet, launched Modern Marathi poetry with his first poem.

In this period two groups of poets, Ravikiran Mandal and Kavi Tambi, together encouraged some great poets like Ananta Kanekar (Chandarat), Kavi Anil (Phulwat) and N G Deshpande. Poetry after 1945 explores human life in all its shades. B S Mardhekar set the fashion of this trend for P S Rage, Vinda Karandikar, Vasant Bapat and Shanta Shelke.

Vishnudas Bhave was the pioneer of Marathi drama which was born in 1843. Other great dramatists were B P Kirloskar (Saubhadra), G B Deval (Sharada), R G Gadkari (Ekach Pyala), Mama Varerkar (Apporva Bangal) and P L Deshpande (Amaldar). Marathi stage is still following its rich tradition and is a very popular form of entertainment.

Novels were not far behind, and the first to be published was ‘Madhali Sthiti’ by Hari Narayan Apte (1864-1919). Natha Madhav, CV Vaidya, Prof V M Joshi, V S Khandekar, Sane Guruji, Kusumvati Deshpande, Kamalabai Tilak are the prominent novelists of the Marathi language. The short story and essay forms came into existence in this period through Diwakar Krishna, H N Apte and V S Gurjar. S M Mate, Durga Bhagwat, N S Phadke are well-known essayists in Marathi, a rich language in all its forms and branches with a history of over a thousand years. It occupies a distinct position in the field of Indian Literature and will continue to do so even in the near future.

the weirdest coincidence in world history.....

Have a history teacher explain this if they can !


Abraham Lincoln was elected to Congress in 1846.
John F. Kennedy was elected to Congress in 1946.



Abraham Lincoln was elected President in 1860.
John F. Kennedy was elected President in 1960.


Both were particularly concerned with civil rights.
Both wives lost a child while living in the WhiteHouse.


Both Presidents were shot on a Friday.
Both Presidents were shot in the head.


Now it gets really weird.


Lincoln's secretary was named Kennedy.
Kennedy's Secretary was named Lincoln.


Both were assassinated by Southerners.
Both were succeeded by Southerners named Johnson.


Andrew Johnson, who succeeded Lincoln, was born in 1808
Lyndon Johnson, who succeeded Kennedy, was born in 1908


John Wilkes Booth, who assassinated Lincoln, was born 1839
Lee Harvey Oswald, who assassinated Kennedy, was born 1939

Both assassins were known by their three names.
Both names are composed of fifteen letters.


Now hang on to your seat !


Lincoln was shot at the theater named "Ford."
Kennedy was shot in a car called "Lincoln" made by "Ford."

Booth and Oswald were assassinated before their trials.

And here's the "kicker":


A week before Lincoln was shot, he was in Monroe,Maryland.
A week before Kennedy was shot, he was with Marilyn Monroe.


and Lincoln was shot in a theater and the assassin ran to a warehouse.
Kennedy was shot from a warehouse and the assassin ran to a theater.


Creepy, huh? Send this to as many people as you can, because:
this is one history lesson people don't mind reading ! ! !

Suckers at Top ( Excerpts from True Facts and Studies of The Nehru Dynasty.)

At the very beginning of his book, THE NEHRU DYNASTY, astrologer K.N.Rao
mentions the names of Jawahar Lal's father and grandfather. Jawahar Lal's
father was believed to be Moti Lal and Moti Lal's father was one Gangadhar Nehru. And we all know that Jawahar Lal's only daughter was Indira Priyadarshini Nehru; Kamala Nehru was her mother, who died in Switzerland of tuberculosis. She was totally against Indira's proposed marriage with Feroze. Why? No one tells us that.

Now, who is this Feroze? We are told by many that he was the son of the
family grocer. The grocer supplied wines, etc. to Anand Bhavan, previously known as Ishrat Manzil, which once belonged to a Moslem lawyer named Mobarak Ali.

Moti Lal was earlier an employee of Mobarak Ali. What was the family
grocer's name? One frequently hears that Rajiv Gandhi's grandfather was Pandit Nehru. But then we all know that everyone has two grandfathers, the paternal and the maternal grandfathers. In fact, the paternal grandfather is deemed to be the more important
grandfather in most societies. Why is it then no where we find Rajiv
Gandhi's paternal grandfather's name?

It appears that the reason is simply this. Rajiv Gandhi's paternal
grandfather was a Moslem gentleman from the Junagadh area of Gujarat. This
Moslem grocer by the name of Nawab Khan, had married a Parsi woman after
converting her to Islam. This is the source where from the myth of Rajiv
being a Parsi was derived.

Rajiv's father Feroze was Feroze Khan before he married Indira, against
Kamala Nehru's wishes. Feroze's mother's family name was Ghandy, often
associated with Parsis and this was changed to Gandhi, sometime before his
wedding with Indira, by an affidavit.

The fact of the matter is that (and this fact can be found in many
writings) Indira was very lonely. Chased out of the Shantiniketan
University by Gurudev Rabindranath himself for misdemeanor, the lonely girl
was all by herself, while father Jawahar was busy with politics, pretty
women and illicit sex; the mother was in hospital.
Feroze Khan, the grocer's son was then in England and he was quite
sympathetic to Indira and soon enough she changed her religion, became a
Moslem woman and married Feroze Khan in a London mosque. Nehru was not
happy; Kamala was dead already or dying. The news of this marriage
eventually reached Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.

Gandhi urgently called Nehru and practically ordered him to ask the
youngman to change his name from Khan to Gandhi. It had nothing to do with
change of religion, from Islam to Hinduism for instance. It was just a case
of a change of name by an affidavit. And so Feroze Khan became Feroze
Gandhi. The surprising thing is that the apostle of truth, the old man soon
to be declared India's Mahatma and the 'Father of the Nation' didn't
mention this game of his in the famous book, 'My Experiments with Truth'.
Why?

When they returned to India, a mock 'Vedic marriage' was instituted for
public consumption. On this subject, writes M.O.Mathai (a longtime Private
Secretary of Nehru) in his renowned (but now suppressed by the GOI)
'Reminiscences of the Nehru Age' on page 94, second paragraph:

"For some inexplicable reason, Nehru allowed the marriage to be performed
according to Vedic rites in 1942. An inter-religious and inter-caste
marriage under Vedic rites at that time was not valid in law. To be legal,
it had to be a civil marriage."

It's a known fact that after Rajiv's birth Indira and Feroze lived
seperatly, but they were not divorced. Feroze used to harass Nehru
frequently for money and also interfere in Nehru's political activities.
Nehru got fed up and left instructions not to allow him into the Prime
Minister's residence Trimurthi Bhavan.Mathai writes that the death of
Feroze came as a relief to Nehru and Indira. The death of Feroze in 1960
before he could consolidate his own political forces, is itself a mystery.
Feroze had even planned to remarry.

Those who try to keep tabs on our leaders in spite of all the suppressions
and deliberate misinformation, are aware of the fact that the second son of
Indira (or Mrs. Feroze Khan) known as Sanjay Gandhi was not the son of
Feroze. He was the son of another Moslem gentleman,Mohammad Yunus. Here, in
passing, we might mention that the second son was originally named Sanjiv.
It rhymed with Rajiv, the elder brother's name. It was changed to Sanjay
when he was arrested by the British police in England and his passport
impounded, for having stolen a car. Krishna Menon was then India's High
Commissioner in London. He offered to issue another passport to the felon
who changed his name to Sanjay.

Incidentally, Sanjay's marriage with the Sikh girl Menaka (now they call
her Maneka for Indira Gandhi found the name of Lord Indra's court dancer
rather offensive!) took place quite surprisingly in Mohammad Yunus' house
in New Delhi.

And the marriage with Menaka who was a model (She had model for Bombay
Dyeing wearing just a towel) was not so ordinary either. Sanjay was
notorious in getting unwed young women pregnant. Menaka too was rendered
pregnant by Sanjay. It was then that her father, Colonel Anand, threatened
Sanjay with dire consequences if he did not marry her daughter. And that
did the trick. Sanjay married Menaka.

It was widely reported in Delhi at the time that Mohammad Yunus was not
happy at the marriage of Sanjay with Menaka; apparently he had wanted to
get him married with a Muslim girl of his choice.

It was Mohammad Yunus who cried the most when Sanjay died in the plane
accident. In Yunus' book, 'Persons, Passions & Politics' one discovers that
baby Sanjay had been circumcised following Islamic custom, although the
reason stated was phimosis. It was always belived that Sanjay used to
blackmail Indira Gandhi and due to this she used to turn a blind eye when
Sanjay Gandhi started to run the country as though it were his personal
fiefdom. Was he black mailing her with the secret of who his real father
was?
When the news of Sanjay's death reached Indira Gandhi, the first thing she
wanted to know was about the bunch of keys which Sanjay had with him.

Nehru was no less a player in producing bastards. At least one case is very
graphically described by M.O. Mathai in his "Reminiscences of the Nehru
Age", page 206. Mathai writes:

"In the autumn of 1948 (India became free in 1947 and a great deal of work
needed to be done) a young woman from Benares arrived in New Delhi as a
sanyasini named Shraddha Mata (an assumed and not a real name). She was a
Sanskrit scholar well versed in the ancient Indian scriptures and
mythology. People, including MPs,thronged to her to hear her discourses.
One day S.D. Upadhyaya, Nehru's old employee, brought a letter in Hindi
from Shraddha Mata. Nehru gave her an interview in the PM's house. As she
departed, I noticed (Mathai is speaking here) that she was young, shapely
and beautiful. Meetings with her became rather frequent, mostly after Nehru
finished his work at night.

During one of Nehru's visits to Lucknow, Shraddha Mata turned up there, and
Upadhyaya brought a letter from her as usual. Nehru sent her the reply; and
she visited Nehru at midnight...

"Suddenly Shraddha Mata disappeared. In November 1949 a convent in
Bangalore sent a decent looking person to Delhi with a bundle of letters.
He said that a young woman from northern India arrived at the convent a few
months ago and gave birth to a baby boy. She refused to divulge her name or
give any particulars about herself. She left the convent as soon as she was
well enough to move out but left the child behind. She
however forgot to take with her a small cloth bundle in which, among other
things, several letters in Hindi were found.

The Mother Superior, who was a foreigner, had the letters examined and was
told they were from the Prime Minister. The person who brought the letters
surrendered them..."I (Mathai) made discreet inquiries repeatedly about the
boy but failed to get a clue about his whereabouts. Convents in such
matters are extremely tightlipped and secretive. Had I succeeded in
locating the boy, I would have adopted him. He must have grown up as a
Catholic Christian blissfully ignorant of who his father was."

Coming back to Rajiv Gandhi, we all know now that he changed his so called
Parsi religion to become a Catholic to marry Sania Maino of Turin, Italy.
Rajiv became Roberto. His daughter's name is Bianca and son's name is Raul.

Quite cleverly the same names are presented to the people of India as
Priyanka and Rahul. What is amazing is the extent of our people's ignorance
in such matters.

The press conference that Rajiv Gandhi gave in London after taking over as
prime minister of India was very informative. In this press conference,

Rajiv boasted that he was NOT a Hindu but a Parsi.Mind you, speaking of the
Parsi religion, he had no Parsi ancestor at all. His grandmother (father's
mother) had turned Muslim after having abandoned the Parsi religion to
marry Nawab Khan.

It is the western press that waged a blitz of misinformation on behalf of
Rajiv. From the New York Times to the Los Angeles Times and the Washington
Post, the big guns raised Rajiv to heaven. The children's encyclopedias
recorded that Rajiv was a qualified Mechanical Engineer from the revered
University of Cambridge. No doubt US kids are among the most misinformed in
the world today!

The reality is that in all three years of his tenure at that University
Rajiv had not passed a single examination. He had therefore to leave
Cambridge without a certificate. Sonia too had the same benevolent
treatment. She was stated to be a student in Cambridge. Such a description
is calculated to mislead Indians. She was a student in Cambridge all right
but not of the University of Cambridge but of one of those fly by night
language schools where foreign students come to learn English. sonia was
working as an 'au pair' girl in Cambridge and trying to learn English at
the same time.

And surprise of surprises, Rajiv was even cremated as per vedic rites in
full view of India's public.

This is the Nehru dynasty that India worships and now an Italian leads a
prestgious national party because of just one qualification - being married
into the Nerhu family. Maneka Gandhi itself is being accepted by the non
Congress parties not because she was a former model or an anmial lover, but
for her links to the Nehru family.

Saying that an Italian should not lead India will amount to narrow
mindness, but if Sania Maino (Sonia) had served India like say Mother
Teresa or Annie Besant, ie in anyway on her own rights, then all Indians
should be proud of her just as how proud we are of Mother Teresa.
GOD BLESS INDIA.

Unearthing evidence to piece together an ancient past

Pune archaeologists find proof of Indo-Roman trade links and the first stupa with habitation

Pune, March 27: FILLING the gaps in history is probably one of the most exciting aspects of archaeology. And doing just this are the finds of two professors from Deccan College’s department of archaeology. While one unearths archaeological evidence of trade links between India and Rome & eastern Africa, the other sheds light on climatic changes between 300 BC and 6 century AD.

While professor Bhaskar Deotare has discovered what could be the earliest stupa with habitation in Maharashtra, professor Vishwas Gogte has found archaeological evidences of trade between the western coast of India and the Roman Empire and the east coast of Africa, dating back nearly 2,000 years. Both plan to publish their findings at the national level.

Gogte — working on trade links between India and other countries for many years now — has discovered four ancient sites mentioned in Periplus Of The Erythraen Sea, a journal of a Greek trader. The journal mentions Chaul, Palshet, Mandad and Dahanu as important port sites on the coast of Western Maharashtra. These sites fall in Raigad, Thane, Guhagar and Ratnagiri respectively. ‘‘Though literary evidence was always present, this is the first time that an archaeological reference has come to light,’’ says Gogte. He adds that the earliest evidence of trade from Chaul to Rome dates back to 300 BC, during the Mauryan Empire.

Evidences suggest that items like cotton, rice, wood, iron and spices were exported from India to Rome. While Gogte was working along the western coast of Maharashtra, a friend was working in Mtwapa on the east coast of Africa. Both found beads which, on being tested at Chicago, turned out to be identical. ‘‘We realised the possibility that beads must have been exported from India to the east coast of Africa,’’ says Gogte. There were evidences which also suggested that these Indo-Pacific beads, as they are now called, were produced in Chaul and exported to countries like Mozambique between 200 and 1600 BC.

Professor Bhaskar Deotare, on the other hand, was excavating remains of an ancient stupa along the right bank of the Purna in Buldhana district. Though excavations began four years ago, he chanced upon concrete findings only last month. ‘‘The site is the biggest and earliest one in the State and covers 10 to 12 hectares. This is also the earliest evidence of a stupa with habitation in Maharashtra. Usually standalone settlements or stupas are found.’’

The stupa, constructed in brick, has several ring wells surrounding it. Other artefacts like terracota beads, carnelium rings, roof tiles and uninscribed copper coins indicate that this was a rich urban settlement. Deotare is trying to find out why the habitation, which dates back 300 BC, came to an abrupt end in second century AD.

‘‘When people lived here, the climate was favourable and rice was cultivated here. We then see smaller settlements in nearby areas from sixth century AD, where jowar was the primary crop. Thus, there was a deterioration in climate,’’ he explains. These findings also fill the gap between the Mauryan and the Satavahana period

Chicago Speach Of Swami Vivekanand

Sisters and Brothers of America,

It fills my heart with joy unspeakable to rise in
response to the warm and cordial welcome which you
have given us. l thank you in the name of the most
ancient order of monks in the world; I thank you in
the name of the mother of religions; and I thank you
in the name of the millions and millions of Hindu
people of all classes and sects.

My thanks, also, to some of the speaSisters and
Brothers of America,

It fills my heart with joy unspeakable to rise in
response to the warm and cordial welcome which you
have given us. l thank you in the name of the most
ancient order of monks in the world; I thank you in
the name of the mother of religions; and I thank you
in the name of the millions and millions of Hindu
people of all classes and sects.

My thanks, also, to some of the speakers on this
platform who, referring to the delegates from the
Orient, have told you that these men from far-off
nations may well claim the honor of bearing to
different lands the idea of toleration. I am proud to
belong to a religion which has taught the world both
tolerance and universal acceptance. We believe not
only in universal toleration, but we accept all
religions as true. I am proud to belong to a nation
which has sheltered the persecuted and the refugees of
all religions and all nations of the earth. I am proud
to tell you that we have gathered in our bosom the
purest remnant of the Israelites, who came to the
southern India and took refuge with us in the very
year in which their holy temple was shattered to
pieces by Roman tyranny. I am proud to belong to the
religion which has sheltered and is still fostering
the remnant of the grand Zoroastrian nation. I will
quote to you, brethren, a few lines from a hymn which
I remember to have repeated from my earliest boyhood,
which is every day repeated by millions of human


"As the different streams having their sources in
different
places all mingle their water in the sea, so, O Lord,
the
different paths which men take through different
tendencies,
various though they appear, crooked or straight, all
lead to Thee."

The present convention, which is one of the most
august assemblies ever held, is in itself a
vindication, a declaration to the world, of the
wonderful doctrine preached in the Gita:

"Whosoever comes to Me, through whatsoever form, I
reach him;
all men are struggling through paths which in the end
lead to Me."

Sectarianism, bigotry, and its horrible descendant,
fanaticism, have long possessed this beautiful earth.
They have filled the earth with violence, drenched it
often and often with human blood, destroyed
civilization, and sent whole nations to despair. Had
it not been for these horrible demons, human society
would be far more advanced than it is now. But their
time has come; and I fervently hope that the bell that
tolled this morning in honor of this convention may be
the death-knell of all fanaticism, of all persecutions
with the sword or with the pen, and of all
uncharitable feelings between persons wending their
way to the same goal.

kers on this platform who, referring to the delegates
from the Orient, have told you that these men from
far-off nations may well claim the honor of bearing to
different lands the idea of toleration. I am proud to
belong to a religion which has taught the world both
tolerance and universal acceptance. We believe not
only in universal toleration, but we accept all
religions as true. I am proud to belong to a nation
which has sheltered the persecuted and the refugees of
all religions and all nations of the earth. I am proud
to tell you that we have gathered in our bosom the
purest remnant of the Israelites, who came to the
beings:

"As the different streams having their sources in
different
places all mingle their water in the sea, so, O Lord,
the
different paths which men take through different
tendencies,
various though they appear, crooked or straight, all
lead to Thee."

The present convention, which is one of the most
august assemblies ever held, is in itself a
vindication, a declaration to the world, of the
wonderful doctrine preached in the Gita:

"Whosoever comes to Me, through whatsoever form, I
reach him;
all men are struggling through paths which in the end
lead to Me."

Sectarianism, bigotry, and its horrible descendant,
fanaticism, have long possessed this beautiful earth.
They have filled the earth with violence, drenched it
often and often with human blood, destroyed
civilization, and sent whole nations to despair. Had
it not been for these horrible demons, human society
would be far more advanced than it is now. But their
time has come; and I fervently hope that the bell that
tolled this morning in honor of this convention may be
the death-knell of all fanaticism, of all persecutions
with the sword or with the pen, and of all
uncharitable feelings between persons wending their
way to the same goal.

kers on this platform who, referring to the delegates
from the Orient, have told you that these men from
far-off nations may well claim the honor of bearing to
different lands the idea of toleration. I am proud to
belong to a religion which has taught the world both
tolerance and universal acceptance. We believe not
only in universal toleration, but we accept all
religions as true. I am proud to belong to a nation
which has sheltered the persecuted and the refugees of
all religions and all nations of the earth. I am proud
to tell you that we have gathered in our bosom the
purest remnant of the Israelites, who came to the

year in which their holy temple was shattered to
pieces by Roman tyranny. I am proud to belong to the
religion which has sheltered and is still fostering
the remnant of the grand Zoroastrian nation. I will
quote to you, brethren, a few lines from a hymn which
I remember to have repeated from my earliest boyhood,
which is every day repeated by millions of human
beings:

"As the different streams having their sources in
different
places all mingle their water in the sea, so, O Lord,
the
different paths which men take through different
tendencies,
various though they appear, crooked or straight, all
lead to Thee."

The present convention, which is one of the most
august assemblies ever held, is in itself a
vindication, a declaration to the world, of the
wonderful doctrine preached in the Gita:

"Whosoever comes to Me, through whatsoever form, I
reach him;
all men are struggling through paths which in the end
lead to Me."

Sectarianism, bigotry, and its horrible descendant,
fanaticism, have long possessed this beautiful earth.
They have filled the earth with violence, drenched it
often and often with human blood, destroyed
civilization, and sent whole nations to despair. Had
it not been for these horrible demons, human society
would be far more advanced than it is now. But their
time has come; and I fervently hope that the bell that
tolled this morning in honor of this convention may be
the death-knell of all fanaticism, of all persecutions
with the sword or with the pen, and of all
uncharitable feelings between persons wending their
way to the same goal.

Ancient Hindu civilisation and mathematics

The ancient Hindu sages discovered the miracles of modern scientific
tools. Believe it or not, the following are the glorious examples of
them.

I. The Concept of Zero

The concept of zero came from the revered Hindu sages in Vedic times
thousands of years ago.

Without the concept of zero the binary system is blind. No counting,
no commerce or no computer business. The earliest documented "date"
was found in today's Gujarat [BC 585-586] in an inscription on
Sankedia copper plate. In Brahamaphuta—Siddhanta of Brahamagupta
(7th century CE), zero was lucidly explained. Muslim invaders from
Central Asia crossing the Hindukush mountain ranges invaded Bharat
1300 years ago and plundered its beauty, riches, books, thrones and
what not. They plagued the holy land with sword, loot, arson and
rape and destroyed and ravaged the whole land in the name of jehad
and "Allah". There was no Steven Spielberg (Schindler's List) like
cinema director who could document this sordid past of our history.
There was no patent system at that time. Might was right. They
considered those substances of robbery maal-e-ganimat (booty looted
from kafirs to be distributed among themselves and friends of
theirs) and thus inculcated those invaluable theorems of
mathematics, astronomy and geometry in Arabic books in around 770-
1200 CE. From there, those extraordinary concepts were carried to
Spanish Europe in the 8th century. However the concept of zero was
referred to as shunya in the early Sanskrit texts of the 4th century
BC and was clearly explained in Pingala's Chand Sutra of the 2nd
century too.

II. The Contribution to Astronomy

Hindu sages told modern scientists how to map the sky in terms of
glaring stars almost 4000 years ago. Copernicus published his theory
of revolution of the Earth around the Sun in 1543 AD only. But our
Aryabhatta in the 5th century had stated that the Earth revolves\n
around the Sun in these specific words: "Just as a person boarding
on a boat feels that the trees on the banks are moving, people on
the revolving earth also feel that the sun is moving". Such
illustrious teaching of astronomy was rarely seen in the\n
contemporary writings of the Greek astronomers. In his Aryabhatteem,
he clearly stated that our Earth was round and it rotated on its own
axis, orbited the Sun and was suspended in the space. It also
explained that the lunar and solar eclipses occurred by the\n
interplay of the shadows of the Sun, the Moon and the Earth.

III. The Law of Gravity

The Law of Gravity was known to the ancient Hindu astronomer
Bhaskaracharya. In his Surya Siddhanta he noted: "Objects fall on\n
the Earth due to force of attraction of the Earth. Therefore, the
Earth, planets, constellations, the Moon, and the Sun are all held
in the galaxy due to this great cosmic attraction."

It was in 1687—1200 years later—that Sir Isaac Newton discovered (re-\n
discovered?) the Law of Gravity, which was already invented by the
greatest Hindu astronomer Bhaskaracharya, of course which was
written in the holiest language, Sanskrit.

IV. The Invention of Trikonmiti\n

The word geometry seems to have emerged from the Sanskrit word
gyaamiti, which means measuring the Earth. And the word trigonometry
is similar to trikonmiti meaning measuring triangular forms.

\nEuclid was famous for the invention of geometry in 300 BC whilst the
concept of trikonmiti had emerged in 1000 BC in Bharat. It is
evident lucidly from today\'s "practice of making fire alters (at
homagni kshetra) in different shapes, \ne.g., round, triangular,

glaring stars almost 4000 years ago. Copernicus published his theory
of revolution of the Earth around the Sun in 1543 AD only. But our
Aryabhatta in the 5th century had stated that the Earth revolves
around the Sun in these specific words: "Just as a person boarding
on a boat feels that the trees on the banks are moving, people on
the revolving earth also feel that the sun is moving". Such
illustrious teaching of astronomy was rarely seen in the
contemporary writings of the Greek astronomers. In his Aryabhatteem,
he clearly stated that our Earth was round and it rotated on its own
axis, orbited the Sun and was suspended in the space. It also
explained that the lunar and solar eclipses occurred by the
interplay of the shadows of the Sun, the Moon and the Earth.

III. The Law of Gravity

The Law of Gravity was known to the ancient Hindu astronomer
Bhaskaracharya. In his Surya Siddhanta he noted: "Objects fall on
the Earth due to force of attraction of the Earth. Therefore, the
Earth, planets, constellations, the Moon, and the Sun are all held
in the galaxy due to this great cosmic attraction."

It was in 1687—1200 years later—that Sir Isaac Newton discovered (re-
discovered?) the Law of Gravity, which was already invented by the
greatest Hindu astronomer Bhaskaracharya, of course which was
written in the holiest language, Sanskrit.

IV. The Invention of Trikonmiti

The word geometry seems to have emerged from the Sanskrit word
gyaamiti, which means measuring the Earth. And the word trigonometry
is similar to trikonmiti meaning measuring triangular forms.

Euclid was famous for the invention of geometry in 300 BC whilst the
concept of trikonmiti had emerged in 1000 BC in Bharat. It is
evident lucidly from today's "practice of making fire alters (at
homagni kshetra) in different shapes, e.g., round, triangular,
hexagonal, pentagonal, square and rectangular". It was part and
parcel of daily pujas and homagnis in ancient times. The treatise of
Surya Siddhanta (4th century) described in fascinating details about\n
trigonometry, which was introduced in Europe by Briggs 1200 years
later in the 16th century.

V. The Invention of Infinity

The value of "Pi" was first invented by the ancient sages of Bharat.\n
The ratio of circumference and diameter of a circle is known as "Pi"
which gives its value as 3.14592657932...

The old Sanskrit text Baudhayna Sulbha Sutra of the 6th century BC
mentioned that above-mentioned ratio as approximately equalled to\n
that of Aryabhatta\'s ratio [in 499 BC] worked out the value of "Pi"
to the fourth decimal place as [3x (177/1250) \u003d 3.1416]. Many
centuries later, in 825 AD, Arab mathematician, Mohammed Ibn Musa
admitted: "This value of "Pi" was given by the Hindus (62832/20,000\n
\u003d 3.1416)."

VI. Baudhayna\'s Sulbha Sutra versus Pythagoras\'s Theorem

The famous Pythagoras\'s theorem states: "The square of the
hypotenuse angled triangle equals to the sum of the two sides." This\n
theorem was actually discovered by Euclid in 300 BC but Greek
writers attributed this to Pythagoras. But the irony of fate is that
our so-called intellectuals (indeed Macaulay\'s sons who have
forgotten their old but rich and glorious ancient Hindu heritage)\n
had also accepted that theorem as a contribution of Pythagoras. They
never read or tried to know that Baudhayna\'s Sulbha Sutra which has
been existing for many thousands of years (written in the Sanskrit)
had already described lucidly the theorem as follows: "The area\n
produced by the diagonal of a rectangle is equal to the sum of the
area produced by it on two sides."

VII. The Measurement of Time or Time Scale

In Surya Siddhanta, Bhaskaracharya calculated the time taken by the\n

parcel of daily pujas and homagnis in ancient times. The treatise of
Surya Siddhanta (4th century) described in fascinating details about
trigonometry, which was introduced in Europe by Briggs 1200 years
later in the 16th century.

V. The Invention of Infinity

The value of "Pi" was first invented by the ancient sages of Bharat.
The ratio of circumference and diameter of a circle is known as "Pi"
which gives its value as 3.14592657932...

The old Sanskrit text Baudhayna Sulbha Sutra of the 6th century BC
mentioned that above-mentioned ratio as approximately equalled to
that of Aryabhatta's ratio [in 499 BC] worked out the value of "Pi"
to the fourth decimal place as [3x (177/1250) = 3.1416]. Many
centuries later, in 825 AD, Arab mathematician, Mohammed Ibn Musa
admitted: "This value of "Pi" was given by the Hindus (62832/20,000
= 3.1416)."

VI. Baudhayna's Sulbha Sutra versus Pythagoras's Theorem

The famous Pythagoras's theorem states: "The square of the
hypotenuse angled triangle equals to the sum of the two sides." This
theorem was actually discovered by Euclid in 300 BC but Greek
writers attributed this to Pythagoras. But the irony of fate is that
our so-called intellectuals (indeed Macaulay's sons who have
forgotten their old but rich and glorious ancient Hindu heritage)
had also accepted that theorem as a contribution of Pythagoras. They
never read or tried to know that Baudhayna's Sulbha Sutra which has
been existing for many thousands of years (written in the Sanskrit)
had already described lucidly the theorem as follows: "The area
produced by the diagonal of a rectangle is equal to the sum of the
area produced by it on two sides."

VII. The Measurement of Time or Time Scale

In Surya Siddhanta, Bhaskaracharya calculated the time taken by the
Earth to revolve around the Sun up to the 9th decimal place.
According to Bhaskaracharya\'s calculation it is 365.258756484 days.

Modern scientist accepted a value of the same time as 365.2596 days.

The difference between the two observations made by ancient Hindu\n
sage Bhaskaracharya just by using his super brain (in the 4th
century AD) and today\'s NASA (National Aeronautic and Space Agency)
scientists of America by using super computer (in the 20th century
AD) is only \n0.00085, i.e., 0.0002 per cent of difference.

The ancient Bharatbhoomi had given the world the idea of the
smallest and largest measuring units of Time. In modern time, only
Stephen Hockings, Cambridge University Professor of theoretical\n
physics, had the courage to venture into the abysmal depth of the
eternity of Time. Astonishingly, our ancient sages taught us the
following units of time:
Krati \u003d34,000th of a second
Truti \u003d300th of a second\n
2 Truti \u003d1 Luv
2 Luv \u003d 1 Kshana
30 Kshana \u003d1 Vipal
60 Vipal \u003d 1 Pal
60 Pal \u003d 1 Ghadi (\u003d24 Minutes)
2.5 Ghadi \u003d 1 Hora (\u003d1 Hour)
24 Hora \u003d 1 Divas (1 Day)
7 Divas \u003d 1 Saptah (1 Week)
4 Saptah \u003d 1 Maas (1 Month)\n
2 Maas \u003d 1 Ritu (1 Season)
6 Ritu \u003d 1 Varsha (1 Year)
100 Varsha \u003d 1 Satabda (1 Century)
10 Shatabda \u003d 1 Saharabda
432 Saharabda \u003d 1Yug(Kali Yuga))
2 Yuga \u003d 1 Dwapar Yuga
3 Yuga \u003d 1 Treta Yuga
4 Yuga \u003d Kruta Yuga\n
10 Yuga \u003d 1 Maha Yuga (4,320,000)
1000 Maha Yuga \u003d 1 Kalpa
1 Kalpa \u003d 4.32 Billion Years.
Therefore, the lowest was 34,000th of a second known as krati and
the highest of the measurement of the Time was known as kalpa, which\n
equalled to 4.32 billion years. Is it not amazing? Are you not
feeling proud to be a Hindu descendent? Swami Vivekananda, the
modern sage of Bharat, stated in his famous sermons compiled in his
Rousing Call to the Hindu Nation, "Take pride in Hinduism; pronounce\n
yourselves as a descendant of a Hindu. Boast to be a Hindu and give

According to Bhaskaracharya's calculation it is 365.258756484 days.

Modern scientist accepted a value of the same time as 365.2596 days.

The difference between the two observations made by ancient Hindu
sage Bhaskaracharya just by using his super brain (in the 4th
century AD) and today's NASA (National Aeronautic and Space Agency)
scientists of America by using super computer (in the 20th century
AD) is only 0.00085, i.e., 0.0002 per cent of difference.

The ancient Bharatbhoomi had given the world the idea of the
smallest and largest measuring units of Time. In modern time, only
Stephen Hockings, Cambridge University Professor of theoretical
physics, had the courage to venture into the abysmal depth of the
eternity of Time. Astonishingly, our ancient sages taught us the
following units of time:
Krati =34,000th of a second
Truti =300th of a second
2 Truti =1 Luv
2 Luv = 1 Kshana
30 Kshana =1 Vipal
60 Vipal = 1 Pal
60 Pal = 1 Ghadi (=24 Minutes)
2.5 Ghadi = 1 Hora (=1 Hour)
24 Hora = 1 Divas (1 Day)
7 Divas = 1 Saptah (1 Week)
4 Saptah = 1 Maas (1 Month)
2 Maas = 1 Ritu (1 Season)
6 Ritu = 1 Varsha (1 Year)
100 Varsha = 1 Satabda (1 Century)
10 Shatabda = 1 Saharabda
432 Saharabda = 1Yug(Kali Yuga))
2 Yuga = 1 Dwapar Yuga
3 Yuga = 1 Treta Yuga
4 Yuga = Kruta Yuga
10 Yuga = 1 Maha Yuga (4,320,000)
1000 Maha Yuga = 1 Kalpa
1 Kalpa = 4.32 Billion Years.
Therefore, the lowest was 34,000th of a second known as krati and
the highest of the measurement of the Time was known as kalpa, which
equalled to 4.32 billion years. Is it not amazing? Are you not
feeling proud to be a Hindu descendent? Swami Vivekananda, the
modern sage of Bharat, stated in his famous sermons compiled in his
Rousing Call to the Hindu Nation, "Take pride in Hinduism; pronounce
yourselves as a descendant of a Hindu. Boast to be a Hindu and give
a clarion call to rouse the Hindu nation from its lethargy and
slumber."

VIII. The Invention of Decimal System
\n
It was the ancient Bharatbhoomi that gave us the ingenious methods
of expressing all the numbers by means of 10 symbols (decimal
systems)—an invaluable and gorgeous idea that escaped the genius of
Archimedes and Apollonius, two of the greatest Greek philosophers\n
and mathematician produced by antiquity (100-130BC).

The highest prefix used for raising 10 to the power in today\'s
mathematics is "D" for 1030 (for Greek Deca).While as early as 100
BC Hindu mathematicians had exact names for figures up to 1053.\n

a. Ekam \u003d 1

b. Dashkam \u003d 10 (101)

c. 1 Shatam \u003d 100 (102)

d. 10 Shatam \u003d 1 Shahashram \u003d 1000 (103)

e. 10 Dash Shahashram \u003d 10,000 (104)

f. Laksha \u003d 100,000 (105)

g. Dash Laksha \u003d 10,00,000 (106)\n

h. Kotihi \u003d 10, 00, 0000 (107)

i. Ayutam \u003d 100,000,000 (109)

j. Niyutam \u003d 100,000,000,000 (1011)

k. Kankaram \u003d 10,000,000,000,000 (1013)

l. Vivaram \u003d 10,000,000,000,000,000 (1016)

\nm. Pararadahaa \u003d 1017

n. Nivahata \u003d 1019

o. Utsangaha \u003d 1021

p. Bahulam \u003d 1023

q. Naagbaalaha \u003d 1025

r. Titlambam \u003d 1027

s. Vyavasthaanapragnaptihi \u003d 1029

t. Hetuhellam \u003d 1031\n

u. Karahuhu \u003d 1033

v. Hetvindreeyam \u003d 1035

w. Sampaata Lambhaha \u003d 1037

x. Gananaagatihi \u003d 1039

y. Niravadyam \u003d 1041

z. Mudraabalam \u003d 1043

aa. Saraabalam \u003d 1045

ab. Vishamagnagatihi \u003d 1047\n

ac. Sarvagnaha \u003d 1049

ad. Vibhutangaama \u003d 1051

ae. Tallakshanaam \u003d 1053

Is it not amazing to know that the ancient Hindu sages used to
remember them just by using their outstanding memory power or was\n
there some super computer known to them also, which we are quite
unaware of?

In Anuyogadwar Sutra, written 100 BC, one numeral had been shown to
be raised to as high as 10140 which is beyond our outmost stretches\n

slumber."

VIII. The Invention of Decimal System

It was the ancient Bharatbhoomi that gave us the ingenious methods
of expressing all the numbers by means of 10 symbols (decimal
systems)—an invaluable and gorgeous idea that escaped the genius of
Archimedes and Apollonius, two of the greatest Greek philosophers
and mathematician produced by antiquity (100-130BC).

The highest prefix used for raising 10 to the power in today's
mathematics is "D" for 1030 (for Greek Deca).While as early as 100
BC Hindu mathematicians had exact names for figures up to 1053.

a. Ekam = 1

b. Dashkam = 10 (101)

c. 1 Shatam = 100 (102)

d. 10 Shatam = 1 Shahashram = 1000 (103)

e. 10 Dash Shahashram = 10,000 (104)

f. Laksha = 100,000 (105)

g. Dash Laksha = 10,00,000 (106)

h. Kotihi = 10, 00, 0000 (107)

i. Ayutam = 100,000,000 (109)

j. Niyutam = 100,000,000,000 (1011)

k. Kankaram = 10,000,000,000,000 (1013)

l. Vivaram = 10,000,000,000,000,000 (1016)

m. Pararadahaa = 1017

n. Nivahata = 1019

o. Utsangaha = 1021

p. Bahulam = 1023

q. Naagbaalaha = 1025

r. Titlambam = 1027

s. Vyavasthaanapragnaptihi = 1029

t. Hetuhellam = 1031

u. Karahuhu = 1033

v. Hetvindreeyam = 1035

w. Sampaata Lambhaha = 1037

x. Gananaagatihi = 1039

y. Niravadyam = 1041

z. Mudraabalam = 1043

aa. Saraabalam = 1045

ab. Vishamagnagatihi = 1047

ac. Sarvagnaha = 1049

ad. Vibhutangaama = 1051

ae. Tallakshanaam = 1053

Is it not amazing to know that the ancient Hindu sages used to
remember them just by using their outstanding memory power or was
there some super computer known to them also, which we are quite
unaware of?

In Anuyogadwar Sutra, written 100 BC, one numeral had been shown to
be raised to as high as 10140 which is beyond our outmost stretches
of imagination. All of our remaining hidden treasures, which had not
been destroyed or stolen by the foreign mercenaries and invaders,
were written in Sanskrit, mother of all languages, which should be
revived. It is our legacy to inherit such rich property that our\n
forefather had left for us by their meticulous observations over
thousands of years ago.

All hidden treasures are written in Sanskrit, which we are quite
ignorant of and our so-called Macaulay\'s sons are trying their best\n
to prevent us from knowing about our glorious past. Sir Monier-
Williams rightly said: "Hindus are perhaps the only nation, except
the Greeks, who have investigated independently and in true
scientific manner, the general laws that govern the evolution of\n
languages."

There was no patent system at that time. Might was right. They
considered those substances of robbery maal-e-ganimat (booty looted
from kafirs to be distributed among themselves and friends of\n
theirs) and thus inculcated those invaluable theorems of
mathematics, astronomy and geometry in Arabic books in around 770-
1200 CE.

More than this, the Hindus had made considerable advances in
astronomy, algebra, arithmetics, botany and medicine, not to mention\n
their superiority in grammar, long before some of these sciences
were cultivated by the most ancient nations of Europe.

Indeed, Hindus were Spinozists 2000 years before the birth of
Spinoza, Darwinians many centuries before the birth of Darwin, and\n
evolutionists, centuries before the doctrine of evolution had been
accepted by Aldus Huxley\'s of our times, and before any word like
evolution existed in any language in this world.

We should take a vow to work together to search those hidden\n
treasures out, propagate the notion that Sanskrit is not a dead
language. Sanskrit is the elite of the elitist, classic of the
classics and it should be revived once again. We will again sit in
the seat of the world assembly with our head held high and with\n

been destroyed or stolen by the foreign mercenaries and invaders,
were written in Sanskrit, mother of all languages, which should be
revived. It is our legacy to inherit such rich property that our
forefather had left for us by their meticulous observations over
thousands of years ago.

All hidden treasures are written in Sanskrit, which we are quite
ignorant of and our so-called Macaulay's sons are trying their best
to prevent us from knowing about our glorious past. Sir Monier-
Williams rightly said: "Hindus are perhaps the only nation, except
the Greeks, who have investigated independently and in true
scientific manner, the general laws that govern the evolution of
languages."

There was no patent system at that time. Might was right. They
considered those substances of robbery maal-e-ganimat (booty looted
from kafirs to be distributed among themselves and friends of
theirs) and thus inculcated those invaluable theorems of
mathematics, astronomy and geometry in Arabic books in around 770-
1200 CE.

More than this, the Hindus had made considerable advances in
astronomy, algebra, arithmetics, botany and medicine, not to mention
their superiority in grammar, long before some of these sciences
were cultivated by the most ancient nations of Europe.

Indeed, Hindus were Spinozists 2000 years before the birth of
Spinoza, Darwinians many centuries before the birth of Darwin, and
evolutionists, centuries before the doctrine of evolution had been
accepted by Aldus Huxley's of our times, and before any word like
evolution existed in any language in this world.

We should take a vow to work together to search those hidden
treasures out, propagate the notion that Sanskrit is not a dead
language. Sanskrit is the elite of the elitist, classic of the
classics and it should be revived once again. We will again sit in
the seat of the world assembly with our head held high and with
pride. I would like to draw the final touch with the quotation from
Swami Vivekananda, "I do not see into the future nor do I care to
see. But one vision I see clear as life before me, that the ancient
Mother has awakened once more sitting on her throne rejuvenated,\n
more glorious than ever. Proclaim her to all the world with the
voice of peace and benediction."

History of the Physical Sciences in India

In all early civilizations, the study of the physical sciences was neither formalized nor separated from other branches of knowledge. And at least initially, there were few conscious attempts to study the theory of science independently of the practical innovations and technologies that required some application of scientific principles. In most cases, technological discoveries took place without any knowledge of the underlying scientific principles, through hit and trial, and by experience. Sometimes there was a vague or approximate awareness of the science, but the predominant focus remained on the utilitarian aspects of the technique, on practical efficacy, as opposed to how and why something worked or didn't work.

In India, the earliest applications of chemistry took place in the context of medicine, metallurgy, construction technology (such as manufacture of cement and paints) and in textile production and dyeing. But in the process of understanding chemical processes, there also emerged a concomitant interest in attempting to describe the basic elements of matter - what they were composed of, and how they interacted with each other to produce new substances. Natural phenomenon were studied in the context of tides, rainfall, appearance of the sun, the moon and stellar formations, changes in season, weather patterns and agriculture. (For instance, Vedic literature mentions the condensation of water vapour from seas and oceans due to evaporation (caused by the sun's heat) and the subsequent formation of clouds and rain.) This naturally led to theories about physical processes and the forces of nature that are today studied as specific topics within the fields of chemistry and physics.

Philosophy and Physical Science

While it is hard to say which precedes which - theory or practice - clearly there is a dialectical relationship between both, and the neglect of either leads to the death of science. Religious beliefs, particularly religious taboos and irrational indoctrination towards mystical or magical phenomenon, or adherence to false superstitions can often pose as serious impediments to the advance of science, and play an important role in whether the why and the how of physical causes can be safely and usefully explored.

Societies that believed that only the "gods" knew the secrets of nature, and that it was futile for humans to attempt to unravel the mysteries of the universe were naturally incapable of making any substantial progress in the realm of the sciences. Even in societies where there were no formal religious taboos in understanding real-world phenomenon in a scientific way, the power and the influence of the priests could serve as an obstacle to scientific progress. For instance, in a society where ritual practices alone were considered sufficient in achieving desired goals, there would naturally be little scope for serious investigation into the properties and laws of nature.

While ancient India did not generally suffer from the first affliction (of religious opposition to science), it did suffer from the second (the proliferation of rituals and superstitions). The progress of science in India was thus inextricably linked to challenges to the domination of the priests, and resistance to the proliferation of rituals and sacrifices. It was necessary to at least argue that rituals alone were insufficient in producing desired results, and that some measure of rational observation of the world was necessary in shaping human destiny. It is therefore no accident that, by and large, developments in science and technology came in parallel with the advance of rational philosophy in India.
In the earliest scientific texts such has those of the Vaisheshikas (6th C BC or possibly earlier) , , there was a rudimentary attempt at recording the physical properties of different types of plants and natural substances. There was also an attempt at summarizing and classifying the observations made about natural phenomenon. Intuitive formulations and approximate theories about the composition of matter and physical behavior followed. Thus, although the earliest applications of physics and chemistry in India (as in other ancient societies), took place without involving much theoretical knowledge or insight into these branches of science, there were elements of basic scientific investigation and scientific documentation in these early rational treatises. Primitive and tentative as these steps were, they were nevertheless crucial to humanity reaching it's present stage of knowledge in the fields of physics, chemistry, botany, biology and other physical sciences.

Particle Physics

Although particle physics is one of the most advanced and most complicated branches of modern physics, the earliest atomic theories are at least 2500 years old. In India, virtually every rational school of philosophy had something to say on the nature of elementary particles, and various schools of thought promoted the idea that matter was composed of atoms that were indivisible and indestructible. Later philosophers further elaborated on this notion by positing that atoms could not only combine in pairs (dyads) but also in threes (triads) - and that the juxtaposition of dyads and triads determined the different physical properties of substances seen in nature. The Jains also postulated that the combinations of atoms required specific properties in the combining atoms, and also a separate "catalyst" atom. In this way, the earlier atomic theories became converted into a molecular theory of matter. While many details of these theories no longer stand the test of scientific validity, there was much in these formulations that was conceptually quite advanced and sophisticated for it's time.

{Although it may be just a coincidence, but the development of the Jain molecular theory appears to parallel practical developments in other fields such as medicine or metallurgy where the vital role of catalysts had been observed and carefully documented. Indian medical texts had postulated that proper human digestion and the successful absorption of medicinal pills and potions also required the presence of "catalytic" substances. The requirement of catalytic substances relating to the manufacture of acids and alkalis (relevant to medicinal and surgical applications) had also been documented, as had the role of suitable catalysts in metallurgical processes, and in the manufacture of color-fast dyes. (Today, much more is known about catalytic processes, as a variety of minerals, vitamins and enzymes have been identified as playing a key role (as catalysts) in a range of essential chemical processes that take place in our bodies, as do catalytic compounds in other physical processes).}

Atomic/molecular theories were also utilized in (albeit speculative) explanations of chemical changes caused by heat. Prasastapada proposed that the taijasa (heat) factor affected molecular groupings (vyuhas), thus causing chemical changes. Two competing theories attempted to provide a more detailed explanation of the process (as applied to the baking/coloring of a clay pot through firing) : the Pilupakavada theory, as proposed by the Vaisesikas held that the application of heat (through fire, for instance) reduced the molecules of the earthen pot into atoms; and the continued application of heat caused the atoms to regroup creating new molecules and a different color. The Pitharapakavada theory offered by the Nyayikas (of the Nyaya school) disagreed, suggesting that the molecular changes/transformations took place without a breakdown of the original molecules into basic atoms, arguing that if that happened, there would also have to be a disintegration of the pot itself, which remained intact, but only changed color.

An intuitive understanding of kinetic energy appears in the texts of Prasastapada and the the Nyaya-Vaisesikas who believed that all atoms were in a state of constant activity. The concept of parispanda was propounded to describe such molecular/atomic motion, whether it be whirling, circling, or harmonic.

Optics and Sound

The earliest of the Indian rationalists also attempted to provide theories on the nature of light and sound. Like the ancient Greeks, the eye was assumed to be a source of light by the early Indian philosophers, and this error wasn't corrected until the 1st C AD when Susruta posited that it was light arriving from an external source at the retina that illuminated the world around us. (This was reiterated by Aryabhatta in the 5th C). In other respects, the earlier philosophers were more on the mark, with Cakrapani suggesting that both sound and light traveled in waves, but that light traveled at a much higher speed. Others like the Mimamsakas imagined light to comprise of minute particles (now understood to be photons) in constant motion and spreading through radiation and diffusion from the original source.

The wave character of sound was elaborated on by Prastapada who hypothesized that sound was borne by air in increasing circles, similar to the movement of ripples in water. Sound was understood to have its own reflection - pratidhvani (echo). Musical pitches (sruti) were seen as caused by the magnitude and frequency of vibrations. A svara (tone) was believed to consist of a sruti (fundamental tone) and some anuranana (partial tones or harmonics). Musical theory was elaborated on the basis of concepts such as jativyaktyoriva tadatamyam (genus and species of svara), parinama (change of fundamental frequency), vyanjana (manifestation of overtones), vivartana (reflection of sound), and karyakaranabhava (cause and effect of the sound).

In the 6th C. Varahamihira discussed reflection as being caused by light particles arriving on an object and then back-scattering ( kiranavighattana, murcchana). Vatsyayana referred to this phenomenon as rasmiparavartana, and the concept was adapted to explain the occurrence of shadows and the opacity of materials. Refraction was understood to be caused by the ability of light to penetrate inner spaces of translucent or transparent materials and Uddyotakara drew a comparison with fluids moving through porous objects - tatra parispandah tiryaggamanam parisravah pata iti.

(Al Haytham (b, Basra, worked in Cairo, 10th C) who may have been familiar with the writings of Aryabhatta, expounded a more advanced theory of optics using light rays, diagrammatically explaining the concepts of reflection and refraction. He is particularly known for elucidating the laws of refraction and articulating that refraction was caused by light rays traveling at different speeds in different materials.)

Astronomy and Physics

Just as the study of Mathematics in India received an impetus from the study of astronomy, so did the study of Physics. As mentioned in the essay on mathematics, Aryabhatta (5th-6th C) made pioneering discoveries in the realm of planetary motion. This led to advances in the definition of space and time measuring units and better comprehension of concepts such as gravitation, motion and velocity.

{For instance, Yativrasabha's work Tiloyapannatti (6th C) gives various units for measuring distances and time and also describes a system of infinite time measures . More significantly, Vacaspati Misra (circa AD 840) anticipated solid (co-ordinate) geometry eight centuries before Descartes (AD 1644). In his Nyayasuchi-nibandha, he states that the position of a particle in space could be calculated by assuming it relative to another and measuring along three (imaginary) axes.

The study of astronomy also led to a great interest in quantifying very large and very small units of time and space. The solar day was considered to be made up of 1,944,000 ksana (units of time), according to the Nyaya-Vaisesikas. Each ksana thus correspnded to .044 seconds. The truti was defined as the smallest unit of time i.e. 2.9623*10-4. The Silpasastra records the smallest measure of length as the paramanu i.e. 1/349525 of an inch. This measurement corresponds to the smallest thickness of the Nyaya-Vaisesika school - the trasarenu, which was the size of the smallest mote visible on a sunbeam as it shone into a dark room. Varahamihira (circa AD sixth century) posited that 86 trasarenu were equal to one anguli i.e. three-fourths of an inch. He also suggested that 64 trasarenu were equal to the thickness of a hair.}

The Laws of Motion

Although the earliest attempts at classifying different types of motion were made by the Vaisesikas, Prasastapada took the study of the subject much further in the 7th C AD, and it appears from some of his definitions that at least some of the concepts he enunciated must have emerged from a study of planetary motion. In addition to linear motion, Prasastapada also described curvilinear motion (gamana), rotary motion (bhramana) and vibratory motion. He also differentiated motion that was initiated by some external action from that which took place as a result of gravity or fluidity.

He was also aware of motion that resulted from elasticity or momentum, or as an opposite reaction to an external force. He also noted that some types of actions result in like motion, and others in opposite motion, or no motion at all - the variations arising from the internal and inherent properties of the interacting objects.

Prasastapada also noted that at any given instance, a particle was capable of only a single motion (although a body such as a blowing leaf composed of multiple particles may experience a more complex pattern of motion due to different particles moving in different ways) - an important concept that was to facilitate in later quantifications of the laws of motion.

In the 10th C. Sridhara reiterated what had been observed by Prasastapada, and expanded on what he had documented. Bhaskaracharya (12th C), in his Siddhanta Siromani and Ganitadhyaya, took a crucial first step in quantification, and measured average velocity as v=s/t (where v is the average velocity, s is distance covered, and t is time).

For their time, Prasastapada's work, and Sridhara and Bhaskaracharya's later elaborations ought to be considered quite significant. However, one of the weaknesses of later Indian treatises was a failure to follow up with further attempts at quantification and conceptual elaboration. For instance, several types of motion had been earlier assigned to unseen causes. There was no subsequent attempts to solve these mysteries, nor was there the realization that the invisible cause behind various types of motion could be conceptually generalized and formally characterized and expressed in an abstract way, through a mathematical formula as was done by Newton a few centuries later.

Experimentation versus Intuition

In fact, the next major step in the study of motion was to take place in England, when the ground for scientific investigation was prepared by the likes of Roger Bacon (13th C) who described the great obstacles to learning as regard for authority, force of habit, theological prejudice and false concept of knowledge. A century later, Merton scholars at Oxford developed the concept of accelerated motion (an important precursor to the understanding that force=mass*acceleration) and took rudimentary but important steps in the measurement and quantification of heat in a rod. One of the hallmarks of British (and European) science thereafter was the fusion of theory and practice, unlike the generally intuitive approach followed by Indian scientists when investigating fields other than astronomy.

For instance, right up to the 16th C, Indian scientists continued to record useful scientific observations, but without serious attempts at quantification, or deeper investigation into the physical and chemical causes of what they observed. Magnetism is referred to by Bhoja (10th-11th C) as well as by Sankara Misra later. Udayana (10th-11th C) recognized solar heat as the heat-source of all chemical changes, and also that air had weight in a discussion of balloons in his Kiranawali. Vallabhacharya (13th C) in his Nyaya-lilavati pointed out the resistance of water to a sinking object, but did not go on to discuss the principle any further. Sankara Misra (15th-16th C) noted the phenomenon of electrostatic attraction after he had observed how grass and straw were attracted by amber. But the cause was deemed adrishta (unseen cause). He also recorded some awareness of the concept of kinetic energy and in his Upaskara dwelt on the properties of heat, and tried to relate the process of boiling to evaporation. In the same treatise, Sankara Misra also gave examples of capillary motion citing the ascent of sap from root to stem in a plant and the ability of liquids to penetrate porous vessels. He also wrote about surface tension, and posited sandrata (viscosity) as the cause behind the cohesion of water molecules and the smoothness of water itself.

The Social Milieu

Yet, unlike in astronomy, where many Indian scientists got very intensely involved, and were driven to work towards a considerable degree of accuracy, no such compulsions appeared to guide Indian scientists in other fields. Whereas Indian astronomers were compelled to develop useful mathematical formulae and explore the mysteries of the universe in greater depth - in other fields of scientific investigation, Indian scientists seemed to remain content with intuitive and general observations, tolerating a far greater degree of vagueness and imprecision. The answer to this apparent inconsistency may lie in the social milieu. The study of astronomy was triggered partly by practical considerations such as the need for accurate monsoon prediction and rainfall mapping, but perhaps even more so, by the growing demand for "good" astrologers. The obsession with astrological charts - both amongst the royalty and mercantile classes led to considerable state patronage of intellectuals who wished to pursue the study of astronomy. Patronage was also available for alchemists - for those attempting to discover the "elixir" of life. But support for modern scientific research as was beginning to take shape in 14th C Oxford was generally lacking.

The situation prevalent in 15th-16th C Italy was not significantly different, and Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519) was particularly frustrated that there was not sufficient interest in his many inventions and how those with means failed to distinguish genuine scientific activities from quackery and the work of charlatans. But Da Vinci was convinced that dedication to scientific truth would eventually prevail. "For nature, as it would seem, takes vengeance on such as would work miracles and they come to have less than other men who are more quiet. And those who wish to grow rich in a day shall live a long time in great poverty, as happens and will to all eternity happen to the alchemists, the would-be creators of gold and silver, and to the engineers who think to make dead water stir itself into life with perpetual motion, and to those supreme fools, the necromancer and the enchanter."

Although Raja Bhoja's Somarangana-sutradhara (circa AD 1100) describes many useful mechanical inventions, and the use of levers and pulleys is described in numerous other Urdu, Persian and Arabic texts in India and the Middle East, Da Vinci's notes on mechanics, the study of levers of different kinds, cantilevers, pulleys and gears in combination, varied gadgetry, bridges, and studies of flight were of a truly pioneering nature, and exceeded in complexity and breadth any civil and mechanical engineering treatise that had preceded him.

And even though in his time, Da Vinci's works were not especially appreciated, Western Europe was in the midst of a monumental change in it's attitude towards science and technology. A century later, the momentum towards the modern scientific era was to gather considerable pace, and eventually the European Renaissance created an environment where the ideas of Da Vinci and Francis Bacon (15-16th C England - who stressed the importance of the experimental method in science) were able to blossom and flourish.

But at the same time in India, several factors posed as hindrances to the development of modern science. In comparison to Europe, India enjoyed a relatively milder climate, and the production of necessities was deemed sufficient to satisfy the population of the time. The courts - whether Mughal or regional spent a good part of their rich treasuries on cultivating the fine arts and promoting the manufacture of luxury goods and decorative objects of exquisite beauty. Science and technology simply attracted little attention (except when it came to improving the tools of war).

The growing influence of religion - whether Quranic or Brahminical also had it's negative effect. While the Quran claimed that all the world's knowledge was already described in it, Brahminical orthodoxy created a sharp divide between the mental and the physical and thus prevented scientists from going beyond passive observation and intuition to practical experimentation, active theorizing and quantification. Whereas Akbar and Jehangir were not averse to science, and the latter took an active interest in books on botany and zoology, it appears from anecdotal accounts that Aurangzeb had a decidedly skeptical attitude towards the sciences. Although some patronage was available in the regional courts, (and outside the courts), alchemy, astrology, study of omens, numerology and other semi-rational and irrational traditions drew much more attention, and thus distracted from genuine scientific pursuits.

On the other hand, European scientists drew on the best works produced in the East - studying foreign documents with due diligence, often accepting little at face value - but instead verifying the results with apparatus and scientific measuring tools of their own creation. There was a time when such had also been the case in ancient India - but over time (due to both internal and external factors) - India's scientific spirit got eroded. Thus Europe was not only able to catch up with the knowledge of India and the East, it was able to rapidly surpass it.

Since independence, Indian scientists have been provided the opportunity of narrowing the gap, and in some fields have done especially well. However, the quality of science education for the masses still needs considerable improvement. On the one hand, the study of the physical sciences in India needs to be accompanied with practical demonstrations and more experimentation as is common practice in the West. In many instances, tools and apparatus used to demonstrate and quantify scientific phenomenon need to be modernized or improved. On the other hand, there also needs to be somewhat greater appreciation of the intuitive approach that has been the hallmark of ancient and medieval Indian science. The conceptual elegance of some earlier formulations, and the facility to inform and educate through analogy is also something that can be learned from the Indian tradition.

It may also be noted that in terms of pedagogy, the standard Western texts are not always as useful. Often, the teaching of physics and chemistry becomes too esoteric for the average student. There is excessive abstraction in most text books, and undue theoretical complexity is thrust upon relatively young students. In contrast, the Indian approach with it's stress on observation of natural phenomenon, and epistemological approach to understanding each field are much easier to grasp for beginners and intermediate students. Once the student understands the basics, and develops a good intuitive way of perceiving scientific phenomenon - the complexities and mathematical abstractions can follow - and the world of the physical sciences can be opened up to more than just the few who are able to transcend the complexities and difficulties that accompany the study of these branches of science today